1. Field of the Invention
This invention relates to electronic systems, and more particularly to electrical interconnecting apparatus having continuous planar conductors.
2. Description of the Related Art
Electronic systems typically employ several different types of electrical interconnecting apparatus having planar layers of electrically conductive material (i.e., planar conductors) separated by dielectric layers. A portion of the conductive layers may be patterned to form electrically conductive signal lines or "traces". Conductive traces in different layers (i.e., on different levels) are typically connected using contact structures formed in openings in the dielectric layers (i.e., vias). For example, integrated circuits typically have several layers of conductive traces which interconnect electronic devices formed upon and within a semiconductor substrate. Each layer is separated from adjacent layers by dielectric layers. Within a semiconductor device package, several layers of conductive traces separated by dielectric layers may be used to electrically connect bonding pads of an integrated circuit to terminals (e.g., pins or leads) of the device package. Printed circuit boards also typically have several layers of conductive traces separated by dielectric layers. The conductive traces are used to electrically interconnect terminals of electronic devices mounted upon the PCB.
Signals in digital electronic systems typically carry information by alternating between two voltage levels (i.e., a low voltage level and a high voltage level). A digital signal cannot transition instantaneously from the low voltage level to the high voltage level, or vice versa. The finite amount of time during which a digital signal transitions from the low voltage level to the high voltage level is called the rise time of the signal. Similarly, the finite amount of time during which a digital signal transitions from the high voltage level to the low voltage level is called the fall time of the signal.
Digital electronic systems are continually being produced which operate at higher signal frequencies (i.e., higher speeds). In order for the digital signals within such systems to remain stable for appreciable periods of time between transitions, the rise and fall times of the signals must decrease as signal frequencies increase. This decrease in signal transition times (i.e., rise and fall times) creates several problems within digital electronic systems, including signal degradation due to reflections, power supply "droop", ground "bounce", and increased electromagnetic emissions.
A signal driven upon (i.e., launched) from a source end of a conductive trace suffers degradation when a portion of the signal reflected from a load end of the trace arrives at the source end after the transition is complete (i.e., after the rise time or fall time of the signal). A portion of the signal is reflected back from the load end of the trace when the input impedance of the load does not match the characteristic impedance of the trace. When the length of a conductive trace is greater than the signal transition time (i.e., the rise or fall time) divided by about 20 times the delay per unit length along the trace, the effects of reflections upon signal integrity (i.e., transmission line effects) should be considered. If necessary, steps should be taken to minimize the degradations of signals conveyed upon the trace due to reflections. The act of altering impedances at the source or load ends of the trace in order to reduce signal reflections is referred to as "terminating" the trace. For example, the input impedance of the load may be altered to match the characteristic impedance of the trace in order to prevent signal reflection. As the transition time (i.e., the rise or fall time) of the signal decreases, so does the length of trace which must be terminated in order to reduce signal degradation.
A digital signal alternating between the high and low voltage levels includes contributions from a fundamental sinusoidal frequency (i.e., a first harmonic) and integer multiples of the first harmonic. As the rise and fall times of a digital signal decrease, the magnitudes of a greater number of the integer multiples of the first harmonic become significant. As a general rule, the frequency content of a digital signal extends to a frequency equal to the reciprocal of n times the transition time (i.e., rise or fall time) of the signal. For example, a digital signal with a 1 nanosecond transition time has a frequency content extending up to about 318 MHz.
All conductors have a certain amount of inductance. The voltage across the inductance of a conductor is directly proportional to the rate of change of current through the conductor. At the high frequencies present in conductors carrying digital signals having short transition times, a significant voltage drop occurs across a conductor having even a small inductance. A power supply conductor connects one terminal of an electrical power supply to a power supply terminal of a device, and a ground conductor connects a ground terminal of the power supply to a ground terminal of the device. When the device generates a digital signal having short transition times, high frequency transient load currents flow in the power supply and ground conductors. Power supply droop is the term used to describe the decrease in voltage at the power supply terminal of the device due to the flow of transient load current through the inductance of the power supply conductor. Similarly, ground bounce is the term used to describe the increase in voltage at the ground terminal of the device due to the flow of transient load current through the inductance of the ground conductor. When the device generates several digital signals having short transition times simultaneously, the power supply droop and ground bounce effects are additive. Sufficient power supply droop and ground bounce can cause the device to fail to function correctly.
Power supply droop is commonly reduced by arranging power supply conductors to form a crisscross network of intersecting power supply conductors (i.e., a power supply grid). Such a grid network has a lower inductance, hence power supply droop is reduced. A continuous power supply plane may also be provided which has an even lower inductance than a grid network. Placing a "bypass" capacitor near the power supply terminal of the device is also used to reduce power supply droop. The bypass capacitor supplies a substantial amount of the transient load current, thereby reducing the amount of transient load current flowing through the power supply conductor. Ground bounce is reduced by using a low inductance ground conductor grid network, or a continuous ground plane having an even lower amount of inductance. Power supply and ground grids or planes are commonly placed in close proximity to one another in order to further reduce the inductances of the grids or planes.
Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is the term used to describe unwanted interference energies either conducted as currents or radiated as electromagnetic fields. High frequency components present within circuits producing digital signals having short transition times may be coupled into nearby electronic systems (e.g., radio and television circuits), disrupting proper operation of these systems. The United States Federal Communication Commission has established upper limits for the amounts of EMI products for sale in the United States may generate.
Signal circuits form current loops which radiate magnetic fields in a differential mode. Differential mode EMI is usually reduced by reducing the areas proscribed by the circuits and the magnitudes of the signal currents. Impedances of power and ground conductors create voltage drops along the conductors, causing the conductors to radiate electric fields in a common mode. Common mode EMI is typically reduced by reducing the impedances of the power and ground conductors. Reducing the impedances of the power and ground conductors thus reduces EMI as well as power supply droop and ground bounce.
Within the wide frequency range present within electronic systems with digital signals having short transition times, the electrical impedance between any two parallel conductive planes (e.g., adjacent power and ground planes) may vary widely. The parallel conductive planes may exhibit multiple electrical resonances, resulting in alternating high and low impedance values. Parallel conductive planes tend to radiate a significant amount of differential mode EMI at their boundaries (i.e., from their edges). The magnitude of differential mode EMI radiated from the edges of the parallel conductive planes varies with frequency and is directly proportional to the electrical impedance between the planes.
FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a pair of 10 in..times.10 in. square conductive planes separated by a fiberglass-epoxy composite dielectric layer. Each conductive plane is made of copper and is 0.0014 in. thick. The fiberglass-epoxy composite layer separating the planes has a dielectric constant of 4.0 and is 0.004 in. thick. FIG. 2 is a graph of the magnitude of the simulated electrical impedance between the pair of rectangular conductive planes of FIG. 1 (log.sub.10 scale) versus the frequency of a voltage between the planes (log.sub.10 scale). The graph was created by modeling each square inch of the pair of conductive planes as a matrix of transmission line segments. The impedance value was computed by simulating the application of a 1 ampere constant current between the centers of the rectangular planes, varying the frequency of the current, and determining the magnitude of the steady state voltage between the centers of the rectangular planes.
As shown in FIG. 2, the magnitude of the electrical impedance between the parallel conductive planes of FIG. 1 varies widely at frequencies above about 20 MHz. The parallel conductive planes exhibit multiple electrical resonances at frequencies between 100 MHz and 1 GHz, resulting in alternating high and low impedance values. The parallel conductive planes of FIG. 1 would radiate substantial amounts of EMI at frequencies where the electrical impedance between the planes anywhere near their peripheries is high.
It would thus be desirable to have a system for stabilizing the electrical impedance between parallel conductive planes. Such a system would reduce power supply droop, ground bounce, and the amount of electromagnetic energy radiated from the edges of the planes. Such impedance stabilization may also reduce the need for bypass capacitors.